Abstract

The main purpose of the study is to examine various ethical decision-making models based on Dual Process Theory (DPT) and to determine the features of their application in business management. Systematization of the literary sources and approaches for solving the problem of managerial decision-making indicates that despite a significant number of data publications, the issue of the implementation and effectiveness of ethical models is poorly researched and requires a more detailed analysis. The object of research is secondary data contained in scientific articles published in journals. The paper examines the social-intuitive-emotional context of the ethical decision-making process, which can help understand the management context of these models. The results of the empirical analysis of the features of the use of the Social-Intuitionist (S-I), Cognitive-Intuitionist (C-I), and Cognitive-Affective models (C-A) models in the decision-making process proved the existence of significant differences between them. The methodological tools of the research were the theories of emotion and intuition, as they directly relate to the “Integrated Ethical Decision Making” (I-EDM) model, which is the most practiced in the actual business setting. The article proposes a conceptual integrated R-S-I-E Ethical Decision-Making model, which can be used in testing theoretical research questions and hypotheses related to business ethics. This model considers individual factors, personal moral philosophy (deontology, teleology), and the moral intensity managers feel during a moral dilemma. Based on the research results, the consequences of overcoming the gap between the existing theoretical developments on these issues and the peculiarities of the decision-making process in practice are summarized. The research results can be used in the empirical evaluation of ethical models in different cultural conditions (including India) and be helpful for the management of companies in making ethical decisions.

Keywords: dual process, managerial decisions, ethical models, cultural, India.

JEL Classification: M1, M10.

Cite as: Gupta, S., & Bhandari, S. (2022). Dual Process Ethical Decision-Making Models: Need for Empirical Examination. Business Ethics and Leadership, 6(3), 47-56. https://doi.org/10.21272/bel.6(3).47-56.2022

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License

References

1. Agnihotri, R., Rapp, A., Kothandaraman, P., and Singh, R.K. (2012). An emotion-based model of salesperson ethical behaviors. Journal of Business Ethics, 109(2), 243-257. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
2. Bartlett, D. (2003). Management and business ethics: A critique and integration of ethical decision‐making models. British Journal of Management, 14(3), 223-235. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
3. Blasi, A. (1980). Bridging moral cognition and moral action: A critical review of the literature. Psychological Bulletin, 88(1), 1-45. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
4. Chia, A., & Lim, S.M. (2000). The effects of issue characteristics on the recognition of moral issues. Journal of Business Ethics, 27(3), 255-269. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
5. Cottone, R.R. and Claus, R.E. (2000). Ethical decision-making models: A review of the literature. Journal of Counselling and Development, 78, 275-283. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
6. Cushman, F., Young, L., & Hauser, M. (2006). The role of conscious reasoning and intuition in moral judgment: Testing three principles of harm. Psychological science, 17(12), 1082-1089. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
7. De Sousa, R. (2001). Moral emotions. Ethical Theory and Moral Practice, 4(2), 109-126. [CrossRef]
8. Dedeke, A. (2013). A cognitive-intuitionist model of moral judgment. Journal of Business Ethics, 126(3), 437-457. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
9. Ellemers, N., Van Der Toorn, J., Paunov, Y., and Van Leeuwen, T. (2019). The psychology of morality: A review and analysis of empirical studies published from 1940 through 2017. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 23(4), 332-366. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
10. Ferrell, O., and L. Gresham. (1985). A contingency framework for understanding ethical decision making in marketing. Journal of Marketing, 3, 87-96. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
11. Forester-Miller, H., & Davis, T. (2016). A practitioner’s guide to ethical decision making. Alexandria, VA: American Counseling Association. Available at: [Link]
12. Garg, N., Inman, J.J., and Mittal, V. (2005). Incidental and task-related effect: A pre-inquiry and extension of the influence of effect on choice. Journal of Consumer Research, 32(1), 154-159. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
13. Garrigan, B., Adlam, A.L., and Langdon, P.E. (2018). Moral decision-making and moral development: Toward an integrative framework. Developmental Review, 49, 80-100. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
14. Gaudine, A., and Thorne, L. (2001). Emotion and ethical decision-making in organizations. Journal of Business Ethics, 31(2), 175-187. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
15. Gilovich, T., Griffin, D., and Kahneman, D. (Eds.). (2002). Heuristics and biases: The psychology of intuitive judgment. Cambridge University Press. 857 p. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
16. Greene, J.D. (2013). Moral tribes: Emotion, reason, and the gap between us and them. Penguin. Available at: [Link]
17. Greene, J.D., Sommerville, R.B., Nystrom, L.E., Darley, J.M., & Cohen, J.D. (2001). An fMRI investigation of emotional engagement in moral judgment. Science, 293(5537), 2105-2108. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
18. Habib, S., Aslam, S., Hussain, A., Yasmeen, S., and Ibrahim, M. (2014). The impact of organizational culture on job satisfaction, employees commitment and turn over the Intention. Advances in Economics and Business, 2(6), 215-222. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
19. Haidt, J. (2001). The emotional dog and its rational tail: A social intuitionist approach to moral judgment. Psychological Review, 108(4), 814. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
20. Haidt, J. (2007). The new synthesis in moral psychology. Science, 316(5827), 998-1002. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
21. Haines, R., Street, M.D., & Haines, D. (2008). The influence of perceived importance of an ethical issue on moral judgment, moral obligation, and moral intent. Journal of Business Ethics, 81(2), 387-399. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
22. Jangsiriwattana, T., Salman, S., and Jiantreeangkool, B. (2018). Ethical Decision-Making Model for Thai Context. International Journal of Human Resource Studies, 8(2), 337. [CrossRef]
23. Jones, T. (1991). Ethical decision making by individuals in organization: An issue contingent model, Academy of Management Review, 16(2), 366-395. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
24. Kelley, P.C., and Elm, D.R. (2003). The effect of context on the moral intensity of ethical issues: Revising Jones’s issue-contingent model. Journal of Business Ethics, 48(2), 139-154. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
25. Kish-Gephart, J.J., Harrison, D.A., and Trevino, L.K. (2010). Bad apples, bad cases, and bad barrels: Meta-analytic evidence about sources of unethical decisions at work. Journal of Applied Psychology, 95(1), 1-31. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
26. Kohlberg, L. (1969). Stage and sequence: The cognitive-developmental approach to socialization. Rand McNally New York. Available at: [Link]
27. Kohlberg, L. (1984). Essays on moral development/2 The psychology of moral development. Harper & Row. Available at: [Link]
28. Kuhn, D. (1991). The skills of argument. Cambridge University Press. 324 p. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
29. Lazarus, R.S. (1991). Cognition and motivation in emotion. American psychologist, 46(4), 352. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
30. Loe, T.W., Ferrell, L., and Mansfield, P. (2000). A review of empirical studies assessing ethical decision-making in business. Journal of Business Ethics, 25(3), 185-204. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
31. Mackenzie, C. (2012). Emotions, reflections, and moral agency. Emotions, imagination, and moral reasoning, 237-255. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]  
32. Martí-Vilar, M., Escrig-Espuig, J.M., and Merino-Soto, C. (2021). A systematic review of moral reasoning measures. Current Psychology, 1-15. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
33. Pizarro, D. (2000). Nothing more than feelings? The role of emotions in moral judgment. Journal for the Theory of Social Behaviour, 30, 355-75. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
34. Remley, T., & Herlihy, B. (2010). LAW and ETHICS: CASE STUDIES I. [Google Scholar]
35. Rest, J.R. (1986). Moral development: Advances in research and theory. Available at: [Link]
36. Rhim, J., Lee, J.H., Chen, M., & Lim, A. (2021). A deeper look at autonomous vehicle ethics: an integrative ethical decision-making framework to explain moral pluralism. Frontiers in Robotics and AI, 8, 108. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
37. Roberts, V.L. (2015). Investigating the Process of Ethical Decision-Making: How Moral Agency and Moral Identity Influence Moral Imagination (Doctoral dissertation). Available at: [Link]
38. Rozman, M., and Strukelj, T. (2021). Organizational climate components and their impact on work engagement of employees in medium-sized organizations. Economic Research-Ekonomska Istrazivanja, 34(1), 775-806. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
39. Santosuosso, P. (2016). A ten-step model for solving ethical dilemmas. International Journal of Business and Management, 11(12), 30-39. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
40. Schneider, B., and Barbera, K.M. (Eds.). (2014). The Oxford handbook of organizational climate and culture. Oxford University Press. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
41. Schultz, J.V. (1997). A framework for military decision-making under risks. AIR UNIV MAXWELL AFB AL. [Google Scholar]
42. Schwartz, M.S. (2016). Ethical decision-making theory: An integrated approach. Journal of Business Ethics, 139(4), 755-776. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
43. Simon, H.A. (1979). Rational decision making in business organizations. The American economic review, 69(4), 493-513. [Google Scholar]
44. Trevino, L.K. (1986). Ethical decision making in organizations: A person-situation interactionist model. The Academy of Management Review, 11(3), 601-617. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
45. Trevino, L.K., Weaver, G.R., and Reynolds, S.J. (2006). Behavioral ethics in organizations: A review. Journal of Management, 32(6), 951-990. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
46. Van Kleef, G.A. (2014). Understanding the positive and negative effects of emotional expressions in organizations: EASI does it. Human Relations, 67(9), 1145-1164. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
47. Vitell, S.J., King, R.A., and Singh, J.J. (2013). A special emphasis and look at the emotional side of ethical decision-making. AMS Review, 3(2), 74-85. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
48. Whitaker, B.G., and Godwin, L.N. (2013). The antecedents of moral imagination in the workplace: A social cognitive theory perspective. Journal of Business Ethics, 114(1), 61-73. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
49. Xie, C., Bagozzi, R.P., & Grønhaug, K. (2019). The impact of corporate social responsibility on consumer brand advocacy: The role of moral emotions, attitudes, and individual differences. Journal of Business Research, 95, 514-530. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
50. Yacout, O.M., and Vitell, S. (2018). Ethical consumer decision‐making: The role of need for cognition and affective responses. Business Ethics: A European Review, 27(2), 178-194. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
51. Yu, Y.M. (2014). Comparative analysis of Jones’ and Kelley’s ethical decision-making models. Journal of business ethics, 130(3), 573-583. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
52. Zohar, D.M. and Hofmann, D.A. (2012). Organizational culture and climate. Oxford University Press, In the Oxford Handbook of Organisational Psychology, 1, 643-666. [CrossRef]
53. Zollo, L. (2020). The consumers’ emotional dog learns to persuade its rational tail: Toward a social intuitionist framework of ethical consumption. Journal of Business Ethics, 168(2), 295-313. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]