Abstract

This paper summarizes the arguments and counterarguments within the scientific discussion on the issue of gender-neutral parenting. The main purpose of the research is to investigate UK Millennial parents’ perceptions of gender-neutral parenting and their toy buying behaviour. Systematization of the literary sources and approaches for solving the problem of confusion between gender-neutral and gender-oriented parenting with a focus on children’s toys’ labelling, indicates that even with the subjective norm and strong initiatives of UK government who has been launching campaigns against gender-oriented parenting, still there has not agreed on the best solution for implementing gender-neutral mindset. Investigation of the topic of the research in the paper is carried out in the following logical sequence: introduction with research gap, literature review, methodology, findings and analysis, and conclusion. Methodological tools of the research were quantitative approach with SPSS ver.26. The object of research is the survey dataset collected from 1127 UK Millennial parents. The paper presents the results of an empirical analysis using Kruskal–Wallis test depending on children’s gender, parents’ birth years, and regression model. The result showed that, although there is recognition that gender-neutral parenting should be advocated as a social rule, the degree of final purchase behaviour towards gender-neutral toys is lower than these parents’ beliefs would suggest. The research empirically confirms and theoretically proves that at least UK Millennials believe in the gender-free theory, however, their real behaviour does not necessarily go abide by the perceived rule. In other words, while people may agree with the concept of gender-neutral parenting, they do not necessarily agree with gender-neutral parenting as a behavioural principle. The results of the research can be useful for developing further social recognition of gender-naturalness, and other relevant industrial marketing strategies.

Keywords: gender-neutral parenting, UK Millennials, beliefs, toys, quantitative approach.

JEL Classification: Z13, M39.

Cite as: Oe, H., Yamaoka, Ya. (2023). Gender-neutral perceptions and toy purchasing behaviour: a socio-cultural transition in UK Millennials’ attitudes. SocioEconomic Challenges, 7(1), 15-30. https://doi.org/10.21272/sec.7(1).15-30.2023

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License

References

1. Abrams, J., and Frank V. (2014). The Multigenerational Workplace: Communicate, Collaborate, and Create Community. Corwin Press. [CrossRef].
2. Ajzen, I. (2008). Consumer attitudes and behavior. Handbook of Consumer Psychology, 525-548. London: Heinemann. [Link].
3. Basow, S. A. (1992). Gender: Stereotypes and Roles (3rd ed.) Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole. [Link].
4. Bhat, N. (2020). The influence of Electronic word of mouth (Ewom) on Consumers Purchase Intention: A review and analysis of the existing literature. IOSR J. Eng, 10, 27-36. [CrossRef].
5. Bigler, R. S., and Liben, L. S. (2006). Developmental Intergroup Theory. Current Directions In Psychological Science, 16(3), 162-166. [CrossRef].
6. Blum, R. W., Mmari, K. and Moreau, C. (2017). It Begins at 10: How Gender Expectations Shape Early Adolescence Around the World. Journal of Adolescent Health, 61, S3-S4. [Link].
7. Braun, V., and Clarke. V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology. 3, 77–101. [CrossRef].
8. Brito, R., Dias, P., & Oliveira, G. (2019). The domestication of smart toys: Perceptions and practices of young children and their parents. In The Internet of Toys (pp. 111-133). Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. [CrossRef].
9. Brown, C. (2014). Parenting beyond pink and blue. London: Ten Speed Press. [Link].
10. Campenni, C. (1999). Gender Stereotyping of Children’s Toys: A Comparison of Parents and Nonparents. Sex Roles. 40. 121-138. [CrossRef].
11. Cardwell, M. (1996). Dictionary of Psychology. Chicago IL: Fitzroy Dearborn.  [CrossRef].
12. Carrasco, J. A., & Lucas, K. (2015). Workshop synthesis: Measuring attitudes; quantitative and qualitative methods. Transportation Research Procedia, 11, 165-171. [Link].
13. Copeland, L. R., & Zhao, L. (2020). Instagram and theory of reasoned action: US consumers influence of peers online and purchase intention. International Journal of Fashion Design, Technology and Education, 13(3), 265-279. [CrossRef].
14. Creswell, J. W., Clark, V. L., Gutmann, M., and Hanson, W. (2003). Advanced mixed methods research designs. In A. Tashakkori & C. Teddlie (Eds.), Handbook of mixed methods in social and behavioral research. p. 209–240. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. [Link].
15. Dewey, J. (1910). The influence of Darwin on philosophy and other essays. New York: Henry Holt and Company. [Link].
16. Eckert, P., and McConnel-Ginet, S. (2013). Language and Gender. 2nd ed. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press. [CrossRef].
17. FAO (2004). Building on Gender, Agrobiodiversity and Local Knowledge. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Available from: [Link]. [Accessed 28 January 2020].
18. Fishbein, M., & Ajzen, I. (2011). Predicting and changing behavior: The reasoned action approach. Taylor & Francis. [CrossRef].
19. Fincham, J. E. (2008). American Journal of Pharmaceutical Health. Response Rates and Responsiveness for Surveys, Standards, and the Journal, 72(2), 43. [Link].
20. Hall, A., and Towers, N. (2017). Understanding how Millennial shoppers decide what to buy: Digitally connected unseen journeys. International Journal of Retail & Distribution Management,45(5), 498-517. [Link].
21. Hasan, H. N., & Suciarto, S. (2020). The influence of attitude, subjective norm and perceived behavioral control towards organic food purchase intention. Journal of Management and Business Environment, 1(2), 132-153. [CrossRef].
22. Higuchi K. (2020a). KH Coder Index Page, Available at: [Link]. [accessed 3 December 2020].
23. Higuchi K (2020b). KH Coder 3 Reference Manual, Available at:  [Link]. [Accessed 3 December 2020]
24. Hyman, M., and Sierra, J. (2016). Open- versus close-ended survey questions. NMSU Business Outlook. 14. [Link].
25. Jones, T. L., Baxter, M. A. J., and Khanduja, V. (2013). A quick guide to survey research. Ann R Coll Surg Engl., 95(1), 5-7. [CrossRef].
26. Kay, B. (2011). A child’s biology is not a matter of choice [Online] National Post. Available from: [Link]. [Accessed 27 Feb 2020].
27. Laerd Statistics (2018). Kruskal-Wallis H Test using Stata. Available from: [Link]. [Accessed 12 April 2020].
28. Lavrakas, P. (2008). Purposive Sample. Encyclopedia of Survey Research Methods, Available from: [Link]. [Accessed 26 April 2020].
29. Leeds-Hurwitz, W. (2009). Social construction of reality. In Littlejohn, Stephen W.; Foss, Karen A. (eds.). Encyclopedia of communication theory. Thousand Oaks, California: SAGE Publications. p. 891. [CrossRef].
30. Let Toys Be Toys (2020). Let Toys Be Toys. Available from: [Link]. [Accessed 25 February 2020].
31. Marketing Week (2008). Positives of pester power. Marketing Week, 23 January 2020, Available from:  [Link]. [Accessed 25 February 2020].
32. Martin, C. L., and Ruble, D. N. (2010). Patterns of gender development. Annual Review of Psychology, 61, 353. [CrossRef].
33. Martin, K. (2005). William wants a doll. Can he have one? Feminists, childcare advisors and gender-neutral child Rearing. Gender and Society, 19(4), 456-479. [CrossRef].
34. Miller, D. (2013). Consumption and its consequences. (Online). New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons.  [Link]. [Accessed 12 March 2020].
35. Morse, J. M. (1991). Approaches to qualitative-quantitative methodological triangulation. Nursing Research, 40, 120–123. [Link].
36. Mrunal, (2018). Gender Neutral Parenting – Is This a Right Approach? First Cry Parenting, Available from: [Link]. [Accessed 11 April 2020].
37. Naderifar, M., Ghaljaei, F., and Goli, H. (2017). Snowball Sampling: A Purposeful Method of Sampling in Qualitative Research. Available from: [Link]. [Accessed 26 April 2020].
38. Payne, G., and Payne, J. (2004). Longitudinal and Cross-sectional Studies. Sage. [Link].
39. Rubin, J., Provenzano, F. and Luria, Z. (1974). The eye of the beholder: Parents’ views on sex of newborns. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 44(4), 512-519. [CrossRef].
40. Salkind, N. J. (2010). Data Cleaning. Encyclopedia of Research Design, Available from: [CrossRef]. [Accessed 28 April 2020].
41. Saunders, M., Lewis, P., and Thornhill, A. (2012). Research Methods for Business Students. 6th Edition. Harlow: Person Education Limited. [Link].
42. Siy, J, O., and Cheryan, S. (2016). Prejudice Masquerading as Praise: The Negative Echo of Positive Stereotypes. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 42(7), 9410954. [CrossRef].
43. Statista (2019). United Kingdom: Millennial population in 2018, by age. Statista. Available from: [Link]. [Accessed 27 February 2020].
44. The Boston Consulting Group (2016). The Millennial Consumer. United States: BCG. [Link].
45. Tomlinson (2015). Why the first five years of a child’s development are the most important. The National. Available from: [Link]. [Accessed 22 April 2020].
46. Translate Media (2018). The Rise of Gender Neutrality and its Impact on Language. Translate Media, Available from: [Link]. [Accessed 29 January 2020].
47. Voci, A. (2014). Negative Stereotypes. In: Michalos A.C. (eds) Encyclopedia of Quality of Life and Well-Being Research. Springer, Dordrecht. [CrossRef].
48. Westbrook, G. (2018). The rise of gender-neutral parenting. Euromonitor International. 13 May 2018. Available from: [Link]. [Accessed 27 February 2020].
49. Wharton, A. (2012). The sociology of gender. London: John Wiley and Sons. [Link].
50. Witt, S. D. (1997). Parental influence on children’s socialization to gender roles. Adolescence, 32(126), 253-259. [Link].